UNIT 3: DIVERSITY AND PLURALISM

Introduction for teachers

1. The links between diversity, pluralism and democracy

Diversity – some examples

• Workers and employers argue about wages and working hours.

• Environmentalists argue with the truck drivers’ lobby about plans for a new road.

• Parents want more teachers to attend to the needs of their children. A lobby of taxpayers wants taxes to be reduced.

• Doctors and non-smokers want a complete ban on smoking in bars and restaurants. Landlords and cigarette makers promote free smoking everywhere.

• Young people would like an empty building to be turned into a youth centre. The residents nearby fear that there will be too much noise at night.

The concept of diversity refers to the ways in which people differ – in their interests, but also in many other ways too: in their lifestyles, ethnic origin, beliefs and values, in their social status, gender, generation, dialect and region (urban or rural, for example). Diversity also increases – as one feature of social and economic change.

Is diversity a problem?

According to the theories of pluralism, the answer is no. In democratic systems, anyone who promotes individual or group interests is exercising human rights – for example, demonstrating in public is exercising freedom of expression. The concept of pluralism therefore acknowledges diversity – it is a fact, something “normal”, but it poses a challenge. How can the different interests between differ-ent groups and individuals be reconciled? What is the best solution to the conflicts and problems that they articulate? This is the question of the common good.

What is the common good?

According to the theories of pluralism, no one knows what the common good is before a public discussion on this issue has taken place. We have to agree on what serves us best. The common good is something to be negotiated. Let us look at two of the examples above.

• Workers and their employers must agree on a wage that gives workers a decent standard of liv-ing, and allows the employers to keep costs under control.

• The issue on the youth centre might be settled by building the centre, but imposing rules so as to protect the neighbours from too much noise. The best solution must be found through dialogue and negotiation, and the result is most often a compromise.

Pluralism is therefore linked to a constructivist concept of the common good. First all the players articulate their different interests, and then they look for a solution that everyone can accept. Therefore there is nothing “egoistic” about clearly voicing one’s interests. On the contrary, this is part of the process, but no one must expect to see their interests completely fulfilled. The concept of construc-tivism emphasises that there is an element of learning involved, following the pattern of trial and error. Practice will show how good a solution is, and it may have to be changed or improved – in a new round of discussions and negotiations.

In what way is pluralism linked to democracy?

Pluralism is a form of competition. The players compete with each other to promote their interests, and negotiation involves both power and reasoning. But this kind of competition also ensures that no player in the field becomes dominant. Diversity and pluralism create a structure of polyarchy (power in the hands of many), which is the social equivalent of the principle of checks and balances in a democratic constitution. Pluralism draws on liberalism by extending competition from economy to society and politics.

How does pluralism manage to resolve conflicts of interest peacefully?

Diversity and pluralism allow for a great deal of dissent on interests and issues ( a “sphere of dissent”). This will only work if there is a “sphere of consent”. Pluralism requires the citizens to agree on certain basic values and rules:

• Mutual recognition: other players are viewed as opponents, but not as enemies.

• Non-violence: negotiations are carried out by peaceful means, that is by words, and not by physical force.

• Accepting compromise: all players realise and accept that a decision can only be reached through compromise.

• Rule of the majority: if a decision is voted on, the majority decides.

• Trial and error: if conditions change, or a decision is proved wrong, new negotiations take place.

• Fairness: decisions must comply with human rights.

Criticism of the concept of pluralism

Critics have pointed out that in the pluralist model, there is power in the hands of many, but due to diversity, it is unequally distributed. Therefore some players have better chances in the competition of interests than others.

This argument highlights a constitutive tension between liberty and equality – it is constitutive, which means it is ineradicable, both for democracy and human rights. Pluralists promote the liberal understanding of competitive democracy, the critics insist on the egalitarian reading of democracy.

Within the pluralist model, the tension between liberty and equality is the core of the question on the common good. Liberty means competition, and competition produces winners and losers, i.e. inequality. So when deciding on the common good, the players involved must consider the needs of the weak.

Is there an alternative to pluralism?

The rejection of pluralism implies giving in to the “authoritarian temptation”. The common good is defined by an authority, and whoever disagrees is oppressed as an enemy. Communist parties are an example in point. They claimed sole leadership on the grounds of being able to define the common good by scientific means. Both liberal and egalitarian democracy was rejected.

Ultimately, the alternative to pluralist democracy is a form of dictatorship. This is reflected in Winston Churchill’s remark that “democracy is the worst form of government except for all those others that have been tried”. Pluralist democracy is not without risks, but seems to be the best form of govern­ment to handle diversity among its members peacefully.

2. Taking part in democracy – what this unit offers

The students learn that they are taking part in a pluralist democracy:

• They must make themselves heard if they want their interests and ideas to be considered; taking part in democracy also means taking part in the competition of pluralism.

• Taking part in democracy means negotiating for the common good.

• Taking part in democracy requires all players to accept the basic values of mutual recognition, non-violence, willingness to compromise, and rule of the majority.

The unit applies the task-based learning approach. The students understand diversity by experiencing it in class, and they understand pluralism by getting actively involved in the negotiation process on the common good

Lesson 1: first, the students are asked to share their ideas on what they would have at the top of their agenda if they were president or head of government in their country. The students will experience that there is a diversity of opinions and ideas between them. The class is a model of diversity in society as a whole.

Lessons 2 and 3: then the process of negotiation starts. The students who share a certain outlook or basic approach form political parties (other types of groups are omitted in this model setting); others may choose to stand alone. The students define their goals and priorities, and then negotiate. They may or may not find a decision or compromise that everyone, or at least the majority, can agree to – as in reality. They will experience the advantages of organisations, such as parties, over individuals in the competition for setting the agenda and defining solutions.

Lesson 4: the students reflect on their experience and give feedback on the unit.

The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator. The students carry the unit through their activities. A few brief inputs by the teacher are suggested to support constructivist learning by the students through Instruction on the key concepts. The teacher delivers these inputs when the students are ready for them. The student handouts and the materials for teachers provide the resources and information.

Competence development: links to other units in this volume

What this table shows

The title of this manual, Taking part in democracy, focuses on the competences of the active citizen in democracy. This matrix shows the potential for synergy effects between the units in this manual. The matrix shows what competences are developed in unit 3 (the shaded row in the table). The strongly framed column shows the competences of political decision making and action – strongly framed because of their close links to taking part in democracy. The rows below indicate links to other units in this manual: what competences are developed in these units that support the students in unit 3?

How this matrix can be used

Teachers can use this matrix as a tool for planning their EDC/HRE classes in different ways.

• The matrix makes teachers aware of synergy effects that help the students to be trained in important competences repeatedly, in different contexts that are linked in many ways.

• This matrix helps teachers who have only a few lessons to devote to EDC/HRE: a teacher can select only this unit and omit the others, as he/she knows that some key competences are also developed, to a certain extent, in this unit – for example, making choices, understanding the pluralism of identities, exercising rights of liberty, responsibility in making choices that affect others.

UNIT 3: Diversity and pluralism – Consent through dissent?
How do we agree on the common good?